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19 April 2024Good Practice In Developing Educational Provision and Teaching in a Minoritised Language in Universities: Examples from Wales and Ireland
Good Practice in Developing Educational Provision and Teaching in a Minoritised Language in Universities: Examples from Wales and Ireland
Dr Siôn Jones, Maddison Wright, Deio Clwyd and Luned Hunter
Authors’ Details
Dr Siôn Jones is a lecturer at Cardiff University's School of Social Sciences.
Maddison Wright is a PhD researcher at Cardiff University's School of Social Sciences.
Deio Clwyd was a student champion and Governance and Devolution (LLM) student who graduated in 2022 at Cardiff University's School of Law and Politics.
Luned Hunter was a student champion and BScEcon Politics and Modern History student who graduated in 2021 at the School of Law and Politics and at Cardiff University's School of History, Archaeology and Religion.
For more information, please contact: Dr Siôn Jones
jonesSL26@cardiff.ac.uk
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol (a body that collaborates with universities, further education institutions and apprenticeship providers to develop and increase Welsh medium provision) who funded this project through the Innovation Grant. The objective of the Innovation Grant is to support lecturers teaching through the medium of Welsh to collaborate with educational institutions beyond Wales, to build links for collaboration to encourage innovations.
Many thanks to the individuals at the different universities who helped organise the focus groups and recruited lecturers and students to participate in the focus groups.
Many thanks also to Dr Elin Arfon for thoroughly reading a draft of the booklet and for her comments.
Finally, we would like to thank the lecturers and students who took the time to participate in the focus groups.
Table of Contents
Developing Provision in a Minoritised Language for Modules available in a Majority Language 12
Summary of the Booklet
Sharing good practice in developing educational provision and teaching in a minoritised language in universities is the aim of this booklet. The good practice in this booklet come from focus groups conducted with lecturers and students about their experiences of Welsh and Irish medium education at universities in Wales and Ireland. Here is a summary of the good practice discussed in this booklet.
Encouraging Students to Study in a Minoritised Language
- A financial incentive such as scholarships can encourage students to study in a minoritised language.
- Have a conversation with students at the beginning of the course to emphasise the benefits and alleviate any concerns students may have about studying in a minoritised language.
- Identify students who are fluent in a minoritised language and enrol them by default to study in a minoritised language, with the option to opt out and study in a majority language.
Developing Provision in a Minoritised Language
- Develop provision in a minoritised language for core/compulsory modules that are already available in a majority language such as English because students must study these modules as they are essential to the course.
- Develop unique modules in the minoritised language that are engaging and relevant to students' lives and not available in the majority language as a way of encouraging students to study in a minoritised language.
- Share and run interdisciplinary modules with other departments as a way of expanding provision in a minoritised language, particularly in departments where provision is limited and there is a shortage of staff who can teach in the minoritised language.
Teaching in a Minoritised Language Learning and Reading Resources
- Need to ensure that essential resources such as handbooks, handouts for learning activities such as seminars for modules taught in a minoritised language are available in a minoritised language.
- Referring students to resources available in minoritised languages, for example, academic journals such as Gwerddon (a multidisciplinary journal that publishes research through the medium of Welsh) in Wales, Léann Teanga: An Reiviú (a journal which publishes articles on various aspects of language studies) and Teanga (a journal that publishes articles on linguistics in Irish) in Ireland, and platforms such as the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol’s Resource Portal which stages online Welsh-medium resources for students – porth.ac.uk.
Translanguaging
- Emphasise the benefits of translanguaging which is a process whereby an individual receives information in one language and uses it in another, in order to alleviate students' concerns about a lack of resources in minoritised languages.
- Use strategies such as introducing terms and keywords in the minoritised language and majority language to students in different learning environments to help students with translanguaging.
Synchronous Learning
- When teaching on online platforms such as Blackboard Collaborate, Teams and Zoom, encourage students to write in the chat feature or on an online whiteboard to check if students understand the work, especially with students who can't turn on their cameras or microphones.
- Use strategies such as these below to encourage students to contribute to synchronous learning activities and to use the minoritised language:
- Create an environment where students feel comfortable using the minoritised language by allaying students' concerns.
- Start with tasks that are simple for students to accomplish so they can receive praise and encouragement.
- Create tasks for students that are engaging and relevant to encourage students to contribute to synchronous learning activities.
- Design tasks for students to complete in small groups. In small groups, students can practice using the minoritised language with a small group of students which is likely to be less intimidating than using the language with the whole group.
- If lecturers create groups of students, it is good to create groups of students with different characteristics (for example, different language abilities and different attitudes to the minoritised language) as this can encourage students to use the minoritised language and help students learn from each other in their groups.
- Approach different groups of students to check if they understand the work, ensure that students complete the tasks and encourage them to use the minoritised language (although it needs to be acknowledged that it is difficult to monitor different groups of students when teaching online).
- Give students clear instructions at the beginning of the task and introduce key terms to students in the minoritised language are ways of ensuring that students complete tasks and encourage them to use the minoritised language in groups.
Asynchronous Learning
- Recordings of learning activities such as lectures and pre-recorded videos enable students who are not confident in the minoritised language to go over the material again to improve their understanding.
- To help students grasp the information, pre-recorded videos should be very short (about 10-20 minutes long) on a particular topic or concept.
- Recordings of learning activities should be presented to students as a resource they can watch in addition to attending lectures rather than a resource they can watch instead of attending lectures.
- Online multiple-choice quizzes are a form of formative assessment which helps students remember key information regarding the content of the module and helps lecturers address any misconceptions about the content of the module, if students answer questions incorrectly.
- Online discussion boards are a way of encouraging students and lecturers to have discussions with each other beyond the lecture theatre, seminar room and workshop; creating a sense of community among students and lecturers; encouraging students to have discussions with each other and engaging students. With discussion boards in minoritised languages, it is necessary to create an inclusive environment and make students feel comfortable to ask and answer questions as some students may be reluctant to contribute to discussion boards due to a lack of confidence in their language ability.
Supporting Students in a Minoritised Language
- Ensure that students have a personal tutor who is fluent in the minoritised language, if they wish to have one as some students are more comfortable discussing issues, particularly personal issues, in the minoritised language.
- If there is no suitable person available in the department, it is good practice to ensure that this student has two personal tutors - a personal tutor in another department who is fluent in the minoritised language and can provide pastoral advice and support to the student and a personal tutor who is not fluent in the minoritised language, but which is related to the course the student is studying and is able to provide academic advice and support.
Assessments in a Minoritised Language
- Need to facilitate the process for students to be able to submit assessments in a minoritised language for courses and modules offered in a majority language e.g., to present assessments in Welsh or Irish for modules and courses provided in English.
- Good idea at the beginning of an academic year to see how much demand there is among students in submitting assessments in a minoritised language for courses and modules offered in a majority language in order to translate assessment guidance in good time and to make arrangements for marking and moderating assessments in minoritised language.
- The most effective way to mark assessments that have been submitted in a minoritised language is to have a marker that is linguistically competent, has expertise and familiarity with the field to mark the work rather than translating the work into the majority language to have it marked because translation can lead to changes in meaning and expression.
- If the assessment needs to be translated, it is good to have individuals who are fluent in the original language of the assessment to compare the original version of the assessment with the version that has been translated to ensure that there is no difference in the meaning or expression of the two versions of the assessment.
- Students should be given the opportunity to see written assessments that have been translated so that they can verify that the translation is correct.
- It is important that students receive feedback in the language they have submitted the assessment, that is, students should receive feedback in a minoritised language for assessments submitted in a minoritised language.
Normalising the Use of a Minoritised Language Among Students
- Refer students to student societies and social events held in minoritised languages as well as accounts on social media that use minoritised languages to encourage students to continue using the minoritised language beyond the lecture theatre, seminar room and workshop.
- Direct students to job opportunities available with companies and organizations that work in the minoritised language.
Introduction
The purpose of this booklet is to share good practice in developing educational provision and teaching in a minoritised language in universities. The good practice covered in this booklet come from focus groups held with lecturers and students looking at their experiences of Welsh and Irish medium education at universities in Wales and Ireland.
This booklet will discuss good practice in encouraging students to study in a minoritised language; developing provision in a minoritised language; teaching in a minoritised language; supporting students in a minoritised language; assessments in a minoritised language and normalising the use of a minoritised language among students.
We anticipate that this booklet will be useful not only for lecturers and providers of higher education in these countries, but also for lecturers, higher education providers and providers in other education sectors in other parts of the world who are developing educational provision and teaching in a minoritised language.
Encouraging Students to Study in a Minoritised Language
...talcen caled dan ni’n wynebu [fel darlithwyr] ydy annog pobl i neud defnydd o’r ddarpariaeth [mewn iaith leiafrifiedig].
... a challenge we face [as lecturers] is to encourage people to make use of the provision [in a minoritised language].
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Before starting university, some students have either decided not to or are unsure about studying a course in a minoritised language. There are a number of reasons why students choose not to study in a minoritised language including lack of confidence in the language; lack of resources in minoritised languages and the perception that the minoritised language will not be useful to them for the future (see studies by Ó Laoire 2007; Davies and Trystan 2012; Atkinson and KellyHolmes 2016 and Jones 2022).
Here are some strategies to encourage students to study in a minoritised language.
Financial Incentive
...mae’r cymhelliant ariannol yna yn sicr wedi dwyn perswâd ar rai [myfyrwyr] i roi cynnig ar ddilyn modiwlau drwy gyfrwng y Gymraeg yma...hwnna [y cymhelliant ariannol] swni’n ddeud ydy un o’r ffactorau [sydd yn annog myfyrwyr i astudio trwy gyfrwng y Gymraeg]. Dwni’m os ‘dy hynny’n beth cadarnhaol iawn...diwedd y gân ydy’r geiniog mewn ffor’.
... that financial incentive has certainly persuaded some [students] to try pursuing modules through the medium of Welsh here…this [the financial incentive] I would say is one of the factors [that encourages students to study through the medium of Welsh]. I don't know if this is a very positive thing…it all comes down to money in the end in a way.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
One way to encourage students to study in a minoritised language is offering a financial incentive.
For example, institutions such as the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol in Wales and universities in Wales and Ireland offer scholarships to students studying their course in Welsh and Irish. But it must be acknowledged that financial incentive alone cannot change some students' attitudes towards minoritised languages.
A Conversation to Encourage Students to Study in a Minoritised Language
To encourage students to study in a Minoritised language, you should try to have a conversation with students before they start their course, for example in open days, during Welcome Week or Induction Week at university.
As Davies (2021) points out, we need to consider the way we present information to students and be aware of how different factors such as the social characteristics of the lecturer, body language and the messages promoted by different institutions such as the university can influence students' choices in terms of the medium of language.
Having a conversation with students is an opportunity to discuss the benefits of studying in a minoritised language and an opportunity to alleviate any concerns students may have over studying in a minoritised language. Here are examples of benefits and ways to alleviate students’ concerns that the lecturers mentioned in the focus groups:
...dan ni’n trio perswadio nhw [myfyrwyr] i neud rhai pethau [ar y cwrs] yn Gymraeg ac esbonio’r manteision... o ran gallu cael swydd... “Os oes gen ti sgiliau proffesiynol dwyieithog cry’ yn y Gymraeg, mae o’n mynd i fod yn ased ffantastig i chdi”.
…we try to persuade them [students] to do some things [on the course] in Welsh and explain the benefits... in terms of being able to get a job... "If you have strong bilingual professional skills in Welsh, it's going to be a fantastic asset to you".
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
I always emphasise identity and the historical and colonial context [when trying to encourage students to study in a minoritised language]. I try to weave it in subtly rather than hardcore propaganda.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
... one thing I like to say at the start of the course is to tell them that "I'm not a native speaker [of Irish]". And I think that kind of makes them [students] more at ease.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
...maen nhw’n [myfyrwyr] meddwl ‘di Cymraeg fatha safon uwch ddim yn perthyn iddyn nhw. A dw i’n goro deud “Okay, anghofiwch am hynna rŵan, pwy ‘di pobl gorau i cyflwyno... [cynnwys y cwrs] yn y Cymraeg?... Ni ydy’r pobl gorau yn y byd.”...a jyst achos maen nhw’n [myfyrwyr] dod o’r ysgol hefo teimlad nhw [myfyrwyr] ydy’r pobl sy’n hopeless am y Gymraeg ond ‘dy nhw ddim.
…they [students] think that high standard Welsh doesn’t belong to them. And I have to say “Okay, forget about that now, who are the best people to present... [course content] in Welsh?... We're the best people in the world.” …and just because they [students] come from school with a feeling they [students] are the people who are hopeless in terms of the Welsh language but they're not.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Default Enrolment of Students to Study in a Minoritised Language
...ni’n gweld ar eu ffurflen UCAS [Universities and Colleges Admissions Service] os maen nhw’n [myfyrwyr] siarad Cymraeg a ni’n rhoi nhw mewn grŵp tiwtorial Cymraeg ac os maen nhw eisiau symud allan [o’r grŵp tiwtorial Cymraeg] does dim problem...maen nhw’n gallu.
... we see on their UCAS [Universities and Colleges Admissions Service] form if they [students] speak Welsh and we put them in a Welsh tutorial group and if they want to move out [from the Welsh tutorial group] there's no problem... they can.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Another way to get students to study in a minoritised language is to change the way students are enrolled. Instead of students having to opt-in to study in a minoritised language, students can be registered by default to study in a minoritised language and be given the option to opt-out and study through a majority language such as English.
To do this, students who speak the minoritised language need to be identified. This information can be found from various sources such as a student's university application, for example, UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service) application in the United Kingdom, or on the university's internal systems when a student enrols at university.
Default enrolment makes it easier for students because they don't have to make the effort to opt-in and choose to study in a minoritised language (see Elias 2017). Of course, it is necessary to have a conversation with students to explain this process to them.
Developing Provision in a Minoritised Language
In this section, the ways to develop provision in a minoritised language and expand the opportunities for students to study in a minoritised language are discussed.
Developing Provision in a Minoritised Language for Modules available in a Majority Language
One way to increase opportunities for students to study in a minoritised language is to develop provision in a minoritised language for modules already available in a majority language such as English. According to some of the lecturers in the focus groups, it makes sense to develop provision in a minoritised language for core/compulsory modules rather than optional modules. This is because students have to study core/compulsory modules as they provide students with skills that are essential for the course:
...oedd hi’n gneud synnwyr creu grŵp [seminar] Cymraeg yn y modiwlau
[craidd/gorfodol] yna oherwydd oedden ni’n gwybod wel... mae pawb yn gorfod g’neud nhw [modiwlau craidd/gorfodol]. Dan ni’n mynd i gael farchnad o fyfyrwyr yn ‘neud nhw [modiwlau craidd/gorfodol]...
... we see on their UCAS [Universities and Colleges Admissions Service] form if they [students] speak Welsh and we put them in a Welsh tutorial group and if they want to move out [from the Welsh tutorial group] there's no problem... they can.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
There is also a need to think about the level of provision. Modules can be offered entirely in a minoritised language or elements of the module offered, for example seminars in a minoritised language. Some students, particularly students who are uncertain about studying in a minoritised language, may be more open to the idea of studying elements of a module in a minoritised language rather than studying a module entirely in a minoritised language. One lecturer noted that offering seminars for core/compulsory modules available in majority language to the first year in the first semester was a way of increasing students' confidence to study modules entirely in a minoritised language later on in their course.
...mae hynny [cynnig seminarau Cymraeg ar gyfer modiwlau craidd/gorfodol] ‘di bod yn bwysig i ni o ran sicrhau bod myfyrwyr blwyddyn un nid yn unig yn cael ei trwytho i’r Gymraeg yn y seminarau ond bod nhw’n magu’r hyder yna yn yr ail semester i ymwneud hefo modiwl llawn [yn y Gymraeg].
... that [offering Welsh seminars for core/compulsory modules] has been important to us in terms of ensuring that year one students are not only are steeped in Welsh in the seminars but that they gain that confidence in the second semester to be involved with a full module [in Welsh].
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Developing Unique Modules in the Minoritised Language
...Un peth yw cynnig rhywbeth sy’n wahanol i’r cynnig Saesneg, felly rhyw fath o USP [Unique Selling Point] a ‘dyni’n gwrthod cynnig ein modiwlau Cymraeg, sy’n llwyddiant hyd yma, yn Saesneg achos i nifer o fyfyrwyr sy’ â diffyg hyder neu dan yr argraff bod nhw’n mynd i neud yn well os maen nhw’n astudio yn Saesneg...mae cynnig rhywbeth sy’n unigryw yn Gymraeg bendant wedi gweithio i ni.
... One thing is to offer something that is different from the English offer, so some type of USP [Unique Selling Point] and we refuse to offer our Welsh modules, which are a success so far, in English because for many students who lack confidence or are under the impression that they are going to do better if they study in English... offering something that is unique in Welsh has definitely worked for us.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Another way to expand the opportunities for students to study in a minoritised language is to develop unique provision in a minoritised language, for example, developing a module that is only available in the minoritised language. Developing unique provision that is only available in the minoritised language is a way of encouraging students to study in a minoritised language as this provision is not available in the majority language. But it is necessary to ensure that this provision is attractive and relevant to students in order to attract students to choose these modules.
In addition, some of the lecturers in the focus groups indicated that they shared and ran interdisciplinary modules with other departments within the university and with other universities in order to increase provision in a minoritised language. Students from different departments can study these interdisciplinary modules. It is necessary to ensure that these modules meet students' course learning outcomes and that these modules are attractive to students. Sharing and running interdisciplinary modules and enabling students from different departments to study these modules is a way of increasing provision in a minoritised language, particularly for university departments where provision is limited and there is a shortage of staff who can teach in the minoritised language.
Teaching in a Minoritised Language
In this section, some of the good practices lecturers and students identified in teaching are discussed. This section will look at learning and reading resources, translanguaging, synchronous learning (learning activities such as lectures, seminars and workshops that take place at a certain time and are live) and asynchronous learning (learning activities students do in their own time). As these focus groups were held during the COVID-19 pandemic (where universities in Wales and Ireland had to move to online teaching or blended learning (a combination of face-to-face and online learning), we will discuss good practice in terms of face-to-face and online teaching.
Learning and Reading Resources
Essential resources such as handbooks, handouts for learning activities such as seminars for modules taught in a minoritised language need to be made available in a minoritised language.
There is a lack of reading resources, for example, books and journal articles, which are available in minoritised languages compared to majority languages such as English. This can lead to students choosing not to study in a minoritised language:
...does dim shwt gymaint o lyfra neu ymchwiliadau ac yn y blaen [yn y Gymraeg] bydde ni’n gallu dyfynnu neu gallu cyfeirio ato nhw mewn traethodau. Felly, fi’n meddwl bod lot o bobl yn penderfynu neud e [cwrs] trwy gyfrwng y Saesneg jyst fel bod e’n haws yn gallu ffeindio ymchwil ar y pwnc neu llyfrau sydd yn berthnasol i’r pwnc.
... there aren't so many books or research and so on [in Welsh] we'd be able to quote or be able to reference them in essays. So, I think a lot of people decide to do it [course] through the medium of English just so it's easier to be able to find research on the subject or books that are relevant to the subject.
(Focus group with university students in Wales)
I have noticed some of the articles though that I do have to read [for my course] are in English because there aren't that many published in Irish at the moment.
(Focus group with university students in Ireland)
More resources are now being developed in minoritised languages and therefore students need to be directed to these resources. For example, there are a number of academic journals that publish work in minoritised languages such as Gwerddon (a multidisciplinary journal that publishes research through the medium of Welsh) in Wales, Léann Teanga: An Reiviú (a journal which publishes articles on various aspects of language studies) and Teanga (a journal that publishes articles on linguistics in Irish) in Ireland. Many of the lecturers in Wales referred to the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol’s Resource Portal, which is an online library for Welsh and bilingual digital education resources – porth.ac.uk. Some of the lecturers in Ireland noted that there are projects underway to make texts in Irish open access for individuals such as students to access.
When creating new resources in a minoritised language, it is necessary to ensure that the resources available are of the same standard as those available in the majority language. It is also necessary to make sure that these resources are engaging and relevant to students' lives.
...’dan ni’n gweithio ar nifer o adnoddau newydd, cyfoes ar gyfer y Coleg Cymraeg [Cenedlaethol]...ti’n gwybod mae rhain yn bethau mae myfyrwyr yn gallu defnyddio. Mae nhw’n atyniadol. Mae’n nhw’n fodern. Mae’n meddwl bod nhw’n [myfyrwyr] una’i cael pethau o leia’ mor dda a pethau Saesneg neu ella bod nhw’n cael rywbeth gwell ‘na be’ sy’ ‘di cael ei neud yn Saesneg achos bod o wedi cael ei greu yn ddiweddar iawn o bosib a bod o’n sôn am Gymru yn benodol hefyd felly mae’n...berthnasol iawn.
...we're working on a number of new, contemporary resources for the Coleg Cymraeg [Cenedlaethol]... you know that these are things that students can use. They're attractive. They're modern. It means that they [students] have at least have stuff that are as good as the English stuff or that they get something better than what's been done in English because it may have been created very recently and it's talking about Wales specifically as well so it's... very relevant.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
One of the other issues to consider with creating learning resources is ensuring that suitable technical terms are used. There are a number of minoritised languages with existing terminological databases and dictionaries where lecturers and students can find suitable terms for their subject. For example, in Ireland, there is a National Terminology Database for Irish - https://www.tearma.ie/ - run by Fiontar & Scoil na Gaeilge (an interdisciplinary school running courses through the medium of Irish at Dublin City University) in collaboration with the Terminology Committee, Foras na Gaeilge (a public body responsible for promoting the Irish language in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland). In addition in Wales, there is a National Terminology Portal for Wales run by Canolfan Bedwyr (Bangor University's Centre for Welsh Language Services, Research and Technology) - termau.cymru. But there are still terms that don't exist in minoritised languages for some concepts. It is important that lecturers consult with terminologists and terminology resources to ensure that suitable and standardised terms are used in learning resources.
Translanguaging
One way to alleviate students' concerns about a lack of resources in minoritised languages is to emphasise the benefits of translanguaging, a term developed by Cen Williams and Dafydd Whittall that refers to the process of an individual receiving information in one language and using it in another (see Singleton and Flynn 2022; Thomas et al. 2022a, Thomas et al. 2022b; Thomas et al. 2022c). Translanguaging can strengthen individuals' understanding of a particular topic because the individual must process and understand the information in one language in order to discuss the information in another. This was discussed by some of the participants in the focus groups:
‘Falle bod e’n [cyfieithu a trawsieithu] anodd i rai pobl ond fi meddwl bod e ‘di gwella dealltwriaeth fi mewn ffordd achos mae e [cyfieithu a trawsieithu] ‘di neud i fi orfod edrych yn ddyfnach mewn i wybodaeth.
Maybe it's [translation and translanguaging] difficult for some people but I think it has improved my understanding in a way because it [translation and translanguaging] has made me have to look deeper into information.
(Focus group with university students in Wales)
But as the above student acknowledges, as a result of different students' linguistic skills, some students will find it challenging to translanguage. Therefore, support needs to be offered to students with translanguaging. Strategies such as introducing terms and keywords in the minoritised language and majority language to students in different learning environments such as seminars, lectures, workshops as well as virtual learning environments are a way to help students with translanguaging:
...mi ydw i’n neud dipyn bach o drawsieithu a ‘neud yn siŵr bo’ fi’n defnyddio’r term
Saesneg wrth gyflwyno’r term Cymraeg hefyd achos ti’n gwybod mae’r rhan fwyaf o’r adnoddau dan ni’n ddefnyddio... y mwyafrif helaeth yn Saesneg... dw i’n ‘neud dipyn o drawsieithu ar fy sleidiau PowerPoint. Mae gen i y termau yn Saesneg [yn ogystal â’r termau yn Gymraeg] ...
...I do a little bit of translanguaging and make sure that I use the English term when introducing the Welsh term as well because you know most of the resources we use... the vast majority in English... I do a bit of translanguaging on my PowerPoint slides. I have the terms in English [as well as the terms in Welsh] ...
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
... you know I think it's a good idea sometimes to give terminology [in Irish] at the beginning of the class or the lecture that kind of like the key words... new terms that they're [students] going to come across... and then you kind of get into the explanations after that.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Synchronous Learning
Synchronous learning refers to learning activities such as lectures, seminars and workshops that take place at a certain time and are live. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, lecturers had to conduct these learning activities on online platforms such as Blackboard Collaborate, Teams and Zoom.
In terms of synchronous online learning, some of the lecturers and students in the focus groups noted that some students did not have cameras or microphones on during live online learning activities. This made it difficult for lecturers to know if students understood the work. It needs to be recognised that some students have valid reasons as to why they are unable to turn on cameras or microphones, for example, technical problems or personal circumstances.
As some students were unable to turn on their cameras or microphones, some lecturers mentioned that they encouraged students to write in the chat feature or on an online whiteboard to check if students understood the work:
Like I found that if you put the whiteboard up and they [students] could write anonymously on that [the whiteboard] that helped considerably to get maybe feedback from them [students].
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
One of the challenges with synchronous online and face-to-face learning is getting students involved in activities such as group-wide discussions in learning environments such as seminars. There are a number of reasons why some students do not engage in synchronous learning activities including the amount of preparation students have done; a student's relationship with the lecturer; a student's relationship with other students and permanent anxiety among some students (see Topham, Moller and Davies 2016). With synchronous learning activities conducted in a minoritised language, language can also prevent students from engaging in activities. Some of the lecturers in the focus groups reported that some students were reluctant to contribute in Welsh or Irish in learning activities because they were concerned about using the language and/or did not have the motivation to use the language.
I think that that's one of the main issues that students face in language learning generally, and this again is just an observation... it does seem to be all about anxiety, and I think obviously motivation is definitely an important aspect of that. But like I do find that they're afraid of making mistakes, they're afraid that they might not have the correct terminology, they might use idioms incorrectly...
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Lecturers discussed a number of strategies they used to encourage students to contribute to synchronous learning activities including creating an environment where students feel comfortable using the minoritised language by allaying students' concerns; start with tasks that are simple for students to accomplish so they can receive praise and encouragement and creating tasks for students that are engaging and relevant to their lives.
... [I say to students] "Everyone makes mistakes in the target language. Everyone makes mistakes in their mother tongue.". So... I try to have this kind of open atmosphere that is very welcoming and inviting for students.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
[yn y seminarau] maen nhw’n cael ymarfer eu Cymraeg mewn awyrgylch gyfeillgar lle does ‘na neb yn beirniadu safon yr iaith [Gymraeg y myfyrwyr].
[in the seminars] they get to practice their Welsh in a friendly atmosphere where no one criticises the standard of the [the students' Welsh] language.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
I always start off with something that's quite basic, something very simple and make sure that I just provide them [students] with the tools that they need to execute that task well, that everybody can execute it well. Whether that's providing them with you know a passage of text or maybe a recorded interview or a video that they watch... making sure that there is that stimulus there... And I think the benefit of you know maybe starting with tasks that are kind of easily executed for everybody is just that you can really encourage them. You're not kind of faking it. You can give them real praise and real encouragement for something that they've done well.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
I remember an assignment that was completed in first semester I think with the thirdyear primary teachers... they had to present a cooking show to children or something and they seem to like really engage very well with that. So, yeah making sure that the materials kind of resonate with them, that they're interested in them.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Another strategy lecturers also believed could help encourage students to use the minoritised language was to design tasks for students to complete in small groups. Breakout rooms on online platforms such as Blackboard Collaborate, Teams and Zoom enable lecturers to place students in small groups during synchronous online learning activities. In small groups, students can practice using the minoritised language with a small group of students which is likely to be less intimidating than using the language with the whole group:
I think also just having as much like small group work as possible, so they feel like they [students] have a bit of support I suppose within the group.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
One of the challenges of group work is ensuring that students discuss together in groups and go about completing the task. An additional challenge in teaching in a minoritised language is ensuring that students continue to use the minoritised language when they are in groups. For example, some of the lecturers in the focus groups reported that some students tended to speak in English rather than using Welsh and Irish during small group tasks, such as the lecturer below.
yes, well I find that in the breakout rooms you know when the teacher comes into the breakout room, and they switch [from English] back into Irish.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Another factor that influences minoritised language use as students work in groups in addition to student engagement is group dynamic. It is possible to let students choose which other students are members of their groups. It needs to be recognised that students tend to choose their friends and are likely to choose students with similar characteristics to them (for example, educational ability, cultural and linguistic background) to be members of their group (Brouwer et al., 2018; Moore and Hampton, 2015). This can prevent students from having a critical discussion with each other as students are likely to share the same views as their friends and find it difficult to challenge their friends' attitudes (Poort, Jansen and Hofman 2022). In addition, this can have a negative impact on students' minoritised language use in small groups. For example, if students with ambivalent attitudes to the minoritised language form a group together, these students may be reluctant to use the minoritised language when completing the group work.
Some feel it is better to let lecturers create groups of students as they are likely to choose students with different characteristics who are going to complement each other in completing the task (Strauss, U and Young 2011). Some of the lecturers in the focus groups agreed with this and felt that creating groups of students with different characteristics (for example, different language abilities and different attitudes towards the minoritised language) not only helps students to use the minoritised language in their groups, but also helps students learn from each other in their groups.
... if you're trying to create groups to work together to do a task or to even just converse in Irish you know obviously the best practice is to put a few stronger people with the few people who are weaker... it works really well because there's a lot of peer to peer teaching and peer to peer learning going on that way.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
But, it is necessary to be aware that this method of creating groups of students can create resentment among students, especially if students feel that members of the group are not making a significant contribution to the task they need to complete (see Maiden and Perry 2010; Hall and Buzwell 2013).
Another strategy identified by lecturers that helped ensure that students completed tasks successfully and used the minoritised language in their groups was to approach different groups of students to check if they understood the work and to encourage them to use the minoritised language. It needs to be recognised that it is difficult to monitor different groups when teaching online because it is not possible for lecturers to observe groups in their breakout rooms at the same time as they can when teaching in person. As the lecturer below points out, there are other strategies such as designing tasks that are going to generate discussion among students; giving students clear instructions at the beginning of the task; introducing key terms to students in the minoritised language that can help students get on with completing the task and ensure that students continue to use the minoritised language in their groups:
I find the group work... it's much more difficult in the breakout rooms... you know sometimes you'd arrive into a breakout room and it's silence, or like... cameras off. I find to get conversation going in group work in the classroom... you can see if some groups [of students] are a bit quieter. You can nip over to them. You know you can see... if you're instructions haven't been clear enough. So, I find that it [breakout rooms] needs to be set up a lot better. Or I need to be more attentive, to have richer stimulus material and to have the instruction really clear and to provide kind of scaffolding in terms of terminology sometimes before they go into their breakout rooms.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Asynchronous Learning
In the focus groups, several examples were cited of asynchronous learning or learning activities students are able to do in their own time that can aid learning including recordings of learning activities, pre-recorded videos, online multiple-choice quizzes and discussion boards.
Recordings of Learning Activities and Pre-Recorded Videos
I know some students said to me you know they went back over [the recordings of] all the first semester lectures, and you know so stuff that they didn't understand they can play it back. They can just fast forward to that part of the lecture – hear the explanation again – see what was on the slides... you know students who might not have grasped it first time round, they get a second shot at it because they can just go back to it in their own time when they're not stressed and watch it back or watch a section back that they didn't understand.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Examples of asynchronous resources mentioned in the focus groups were recordings of learning activities and pre-recorded videos. These recordings can give students, especially students who are not confident in the minoritised language, the opportunity to go over the material again to improve their understanding. In terms of creating pre-recorded videos, Mavengere et al. (2021) suggested that very short videos of about 10-20 minutes in length should be recorded on a particular topic or concept as it is easier for students to grasp this information. There are concerns about the impact of recordings of learning activities such as lectures on student attendance, with some worried that some students will decide to watch only the recordings and not attend the learning activities (Bos et al. 2016). Therefore, recordings of learning activities should be presented as a resource that can be watched on top of attending the learning activity and not a resource that can be watched instead of attending the learning activity.
Online Multiple-Choice Quizzes
Maen nhw gyd wedi elwa mewn ffordd o adnoddau sy’n cefnogi dysgu fel... cwisiau sydd yn adolygu gwybodaeth.
They have all benefited in a way from resources that support learning such as... quizzes that review information.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Other asynchronous resources used by lecturers were online multiple-choice quizzes. As a form of formative assessment, online multiple-choice quizzes can help students remember key information regarding module content and help students and lecturers address any misconceptions about module content, if students answer questions incorrectly (see Morris et al. 2021 for a review of research on online quizzes). When designing multiple-choice online quizzes, it is important to create questions that are clear and fair, and it is necessary to ensure that students receive thorough and detailed feedback after finishing the quiz (Xu et al. 2016).
Discussion Boards
Another method of asynchronous learning is using discussion boards, where students and lecturers can engage in online discussions outside of the lecture theatre, seminar room or workshop. Discussion boards can create a community among students and lecturers, encourage students to have discussions with each other and engage students.
Some of the lecturers in the focus groups noted that some students were reluctant to contribute to the discussion boards due to a lack of confidence in their language ability:
... one of the things with languages [and discussion boards] we [as lecturers] found that [from] some of the feedback was that students who were weaker said "I'm afraid to write because the better students have put a lot up and I would just look silly".
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Therefore, in addition to general discussion board strategies (for example, communicating clearly to students the purpose and expectations of discussion boards and creating effective tasks and questions that are going to elicit response from students (see Aloni and Harrington 2018)) attempts should be made to create an inclusive environment on discussion boards by alleviating any concerns students may have about contributing on discussion boards in a minoritised language.
Supporting Students in a Minoritised Language
...mae’n rili neis gael personal tutor sy’n [siarad] Cymraeg... [mae’n] rili neis jyst gael rhywun [sy’n siarad] Cymraeg rili achos dyna[‘r iaith] dw i’n hoffi siarad.
... it's nice to have a personal tutor who [speaks] Welsh... [it's] really nice just to have someone [who speaks] Welsh because that's [the language] I like to speak.
(Focus group with university students in Wales)
It is important that students receive academic and pastoral support during their course and a personal tutor is a key person to ensure that students receive this support. As well as having a personal tutor who can provide effective advice to students on academic and wellbeing matters and referring students to additional support and information available (see Lotchie et al. 2018 for more strategies around effective personal tutoring), students should also be provided with a personal tutor who is fluent in the minoritised language, if they wish to receive one. It needs to be recognised that some students are more comfortable discussing issues, particularly personal issues, in the minoritised language. If a student requests a personal tutor who is fluent in the minoritised language but there is no suitable person available in the department, it is good practice to ensure that this student has two personal tutors – a personal tutor in another department who is fluent in the minoritised language and can provide pastoral advice and support to the student and a personal tutor who is not fluent in the minoritised language, but who is associated with the course the student is studying and is able to provide academic advice and support.
Assessments in Minoritised Language
It is necessary to ensure that it is possible for students to submit assessments in a minoritised language for courses and modules offered in a minoritised language. In addition, the process for students to be able to submit assessments in a minoritised language for courses and modules offered in a majority language e.g., presenting assessments in Welsh or in Irish for modules and courses delivered in English, should also be facilitated. In order to make assessment guidance available in minoritised languages in good time and to make arrangements for marking and moderating assessments in a minoritised language, it is a good idea at the beginning of an academic year to see how much demand there is among students in submitting assessments in minoritised language for courses and modules offered in majority language.
When it comes to marking student work, students and lecturers in the focus groups felt that the most effective way to mark assessments in the minoritised language is to have a linguistically competent marker that has expertise in the field to mark the work rather than translating the work into the majority language to have it marked:
O’n i’n neud gwaith cwrs wythnos o blaen a oedd rhaid i fi submittio fe [y gwaith cwrs] a wedyn achos oedd y tiwtor ddim yn siarad Cymraeg a doedd dim unrhyw un yn y maes yna yn siarad Cymraeg, ‘oedd rhaid nhw cyfieithu e [y gwaith cwrs] cyn asesu e. So, o’n i’n ffeindio hynny bach yn anheg yn enwedig gyda’r rhan... achos maen nhw’n marcio’r rhan gramadegol ohono fe [y gwaith cwrs] so, wedyn o nhw’n pennu lan yn marcio gramadeg y cyfieithydd a nid y gwaith fi ‘di sgwennu’n wreiddiol.
I was doing coursework the week before and I had to submit it [the coursework] and then because the tutor didn't speak Welsh and no one in that field spoke Welsh, they had to translate it [the coursework] before assessing it. So, I found that a little unfair especially with the part… because they mark the grammatical part of it the [coursework] so, then they end up marking the translator's grammar and not the work I originally wrote.
(Focus group with university students in Wales)
Dylai darlithwyr eraill sydd yn medru’r Gymraeg cael yr olwg gynta’ [ar yr asesiad] yn hytrach ‘na bod y peth yn mynd trwy gyfieithiad sydd yn broblemus dw i’n credu.
Other lecturers who can speak Welsh should have the first look [at the assessment] rather than it going through translation which I believe is problematic.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Other bodies also agree, with for example, QAA (Higher Education Quality Assurance Agency) Wales (2019: 4) stating, a translation of an assessment "may inadvertently, fail to convey elements such as technical features and the nuances of meaning; it could also, inadvertently, improve performance by suggesting meanings not really found in the original text".
If the work needs to be translated, it is good to have individuals fluent in the original language of the assessment to compare the original version of the assessment with the version that has been translated to ensure that there is no difference in the meaning or expression of the two versions of the assessment.
...dw i’n meddwl ‘di o’m jyst yn ddigon i jyst anfon fo [asesiad] jyst i gael ei gyfieithu... so mewn ffordd dw i’n goro bod yn involved ... bod ni’n [darlithydd sydd yn rhugl yn yr iaith leiafrifiedig a’r darlithydd sydd yn marcio'r asesiad a sydd ddim yn rhugl yn yr iaith leiafrifiedig] trafod o [yr asesiad sydd wedi ei gyfieithu] ... trafod fel bod hi’n [darlithydd sydd yn marcio'r asesiad a sydd ddim yn rhugl yn yr iaith leiafrifiedig] cael syniad o safon y iaith gwyddonol sydd ynddo fo [yr asesiad sydd wedi ei gyfieithu] .
... I think it's just not enough to just send it [assessment] just to be translated… so in a way I have to be involved ... that we are [a lecturer who is fluent in the minoritised language and the lecturer who is marking the assessment and who is not fluent in the minoritized language] discussing [the translated assessment] ... discussing so that she [a lecturer who marks the assessment and who is not fluent in the minoritised language] has an idea of the standard of the scientific language that is in it [the translated assessment].
(Focus group with university lecturers in Wales)
Students should also be given the opportunity to view translated assessments so that they can confirm that the translation is correct without making any changes to the work.
When it comes to moderating assessments that have been presented in a minoritised language, good practice is to have a moderator who is fluent in the language and familiar with the field to moderate assessments. If it is not possible to get a moderator who is fluent in the language to moderate the work, bodies such as QAA Wales (2019) recommend that the marker marking assessments in the minoritised language consult and works closely with the moderator to ensure that the marking is fair and consistent and feedback is suitable across assessments in the minoritised language and in the majority language, for example, in English. Assessments can also be translated in the minoritised language for the moderators to be able to look over the assessments, but the problems associated with translation need to be acknowledged as discussed above.
As well as ensuring that students receive feedback that is clear, detailed and constructive (for example, see Boud and Molloy 2013 for strategies on giving effective feedback to students), it is also important that students receive feedback in the language in which they have submitted the assessment. Students should receive feedback in minoritised language for assessments presented in minoritised language.
Normalising Minoritised Language Use Among Students
To normalise language use, opportunities for students to have access to the minoritised language need to be promoted beyond the lecture theatre, seminar room or workshop. In the focus groups, lecturers and students discussed the importance of referring students to student societies; social events held in minoritised languages as well as accounts on social media using minoritised languages:
…byswn ni’n dweud fel i gynnwys mwy o’r holl flwyddyn wrth hysbysu y pethau [yn yr iaith] Cymraeg achos os na chi ynghlwm gyda’r grŵp Cymraeg neu ‘da’r pobl sy’n siarad Cymraeg, bydde chi ddim yn gwybod fel bod cymdeithasau Cymraeg neu bethau fel y Coleg Cymraeg [Cenedlaethol] i gael. A fi’n credu byse fe’n rhywbeth bydde’r brifysgol yn gallu neud bysa falle mynd tu flaen darlith a gweud “Unrhyw un sy ishe jyst treial rhywbeth mas yn y Gymraeg, mae croeso i chi neud.”.
…I would say like to include more of the whole year when advertising the Welsh [language] stuff because if you're not attached to the Welsh group or the people who speak Welsh, you wouldn't know like that there are Welsh societies or things like the Coleg Cymraeg [Cenedlaethol] available. And I believe it would be something that the university would be able to do would be to possibly go in front of a lecture and say "Anyone who just wants to try something out in Welsh, you're welcome to do it.".
(Focus group with university students in Wales)
Dw i’n meddwl bod technoleg fodern yn gallu help lot...mae’n siŵr bo’ chi gyd ‘di clywed am Hansh [gwasanaeth ar-lein gan S4C [Sianel Pedwar Cymru, sianel teledu yn yr iaith Gymraeg]] sydd yn darparu cynnwys ffurf fer ar gyfryngau cymdeithasol fel Facebook, Instagram a Twitter wedi ei anelu at bobl ifanc rhwng 16 - 34 oed] ...maen nhw’n neud lot i drio perswadio pobl i ‘neud bob dim trwy gyfrwng Gymraeg ac i neud yn siŵr bod y Gymraeg yn cael ei weld fel iaith cŵl.
I think modern technology can help a lot... you've all probably heard of Hansh [an online service from S4C [Channel Four Cymru, a Welsh language television channel]] that provides short-form content on social media such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter aimed at young people aged between 16-34] ...they do a lot to try and persuade people to do everything through the medium of Welsh and to make sure that Welsh is seen as a cool language.
(Focus group with university students in Wales)
... I think it is really important... to make the students aware of these things [social media accounts and social events through the medium of Irish] because I think when you work with the Irish language and you live most of your life through Irish, we're very much in the know. We know that these things exist, but I often find that I might mention something like Pop Up Gaeltacht [an informal gathering of Irish speakers of various abilities often in a bar where they can meet and talk in a convivial atmosphere] and it's something I might assume that the students know of because you know young people are interested in them... and sometimes I look around and there are some very confused looking faces.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
There is also a need to ensure that students continue to use the language after they finish their course. One way to do this is to direct students to job opportunities available with companies and organizations that give students the opportunity to use the minoritised language. Some of the lecturers also noted that they had workers come and give a presentation to students to show students that the minoritised language is used in different sectors and industries.
... another week it would be somebody from... it could be Google... it could be HewlettPackard whatever who come in and talk [to students] about the practices there to show that there are Irish speakers out there in all walks of professional life that these students might like to go into.
(Focus group with university lecturers in Ireland)
Conclusion
Throughout this booklet, we have introduced a number of strategies and good practices lecturers, universities and educational providers can use in terms of encouraging students to study in a minoritised language; developing provision in a minoritised language; teaching in a minoritised language; supporting students in a minoritised language and normalising use of the minoritised language among students. We hope this booklet will help lecturers, universities and providers in other sectors of education to increase the number of students studying in a minoritised language and to increase educational provision in a minoritised language in order to enrich students' experiences.
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